THE ANCIENT SPARTANS

Ancient Sparta is a name that everybody knows and recognises. The bravery of Leonidas and the 300 are the heroic basis of myriad Hollywood blockbusters. The betrayal of Menelaos, by beautiful Helen of Troy, is enshrined in glorious Homeric myth and legend. Documentaries and books portray the brutal military regime, and the abhorrent practice of exposing weak infants in the harsh Taygetos Mountains.

As any local in the modern town will tell you, the reality of Spartan society was very different from the modern perceptions. The society of the Ancient Spartans was surprisingly sophisticated, their culture as rich as any other city in Ancient Greece.

BEGINNINGS

Surprisingly to some, the history of the Ancient Spartans does not begin with the Homeric Trojan War. The realm of Menelaos and Helen existed nearly a century before the dawn of historical Ancient Sparta. This was an older civilisation, semi-mythical even to the Dorian Spartans of Leonidas. Some authorities believe that the kingdom of Menelaos, known as Lakedaimon, was based at nearby Ancient Pellanas, not Sparta.

Excavations there are ongoing, but are yet to find concrete evidence of any palace. The historical Sparta of Leonidas begins with the Dorian Greek invasion. Tribes migrating from north-eastern Greece displaced the 'long-haired' Achaean Greeks of Homeric legend.

The rise of Ancient Sparta began in about 750 BC, when the emerging Spartan state systematically subdued the populations of the surrounding areas. The nearby village of Amyclae was incorporated into the original four settlements and Messinia was invaded, the population subjugated as helots. These were not quite slaves, but had few rights and were forced to farm the land, giving half of the produce to Sparta.

The lands of Messinia were parcelled out to Spartan warrior-citizens, known as Spartiates. During this period, the Spartan constitution was formulated, and the state elected two kings, ruling alongside a council of elders and demos of male citizens. Helots and inhabitants of outlying areas, the Perioikoi, were denied a vote. This is very similar to the 'democracy' of Athens, where only the richest males had the right to vote.

THE RISE OF ANCIENT SPARTA

Between 680 and 660 BC, the Spartan army adopted the hoplite method of fighting, which would become the mainstay of their tactics for many centuries. In 669, the army suffered a reverse against the neighbouring Argives, and had to put down a Messinian revolt in the 650's. Despite this, the reform continued and the revolt was crushed, within ten years. Finally, Messinia was completely conquered and Sparta began to look further afield.

The famous laws of Lycurgus were crafted to stabilise the society and were impressed into the psyche of all Spartans. Military training became compulsory for all citizen males; from the age of seven, their lives were dictated by unbreakable rules. The Messinian Helots provided food, and the Perekoi became the craftsmen and merchants, allowing Ancient Sparta to establish a professional army. The constant training and hardening, by beatings, austere conditions and rigid selection, led to a highly trained and elite fighting force, devoted entirely to the law.

The whole system discouraged the gathering of wealth into a few hands, avoiding material imbalances that could lead to tyranny, coups or revolts. The use of professional troops, against the part-time hoplites of other Greek states, was the major factor in the growing Spartan dominance. By the middle of the 6th century, Ancient Sparta had conquered its near neighbours and was the dominant power in the Peloponnesian league, a major player in Greek politics.

THE PERSIAN EXPANSION

Throughout the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire gradually developed. Starting as a loose confederation of tribes in modern day Iran, it grew and dominated the Middle and Near East. The great cities of Babylon, Memphis and Susa, fell to the well equipped and well drilled army of Cyrus the Great. By 512 the new king, Darius, overran the Greek cities in Asia Minor and began to influence their politics.

After a failed revolt by these cities, in 494, King Xerxes of Persia decided to punish the Greeks, especially the Athenians, key supporters of this Ionian revolt. Xerxes invaded, but the resulting Battle of Marathon saw defeat at the hands of the Athenians and their allies. Ancient Sparta declined to send an army until their religious ceremonies were over, by which time the battle was won.

480 BC saw the pinnacle of Spartan history, the Battle of Thermopylae, a name that has echoed down through history. Despite the subsequent overestimation of Persian numbers and the underestimation of Greek numbers, it was still an act of steadfast bravery. Thermopylae was an awesome display of Spartan prowess, courage and strength.

The Persian king, Xerxes, timed his invasion to coincide with religious festivals, preventing many of the Greek city states from sending armies. Despite this, many states sent small contingents, including the famous 300 Spartans under Leonidas, the overall General. The Greek forces probably numbered about 7000, and the Persian force up to 250 000 men, a vast difference in strength.

After four days of waiting for the Greeks to accept terms and disperse, Xerxes sent in his first wave of troops, demanding annihilation of the Greeks. Here his plan faltered; the terrain funnelled his army onto a narrow front and neutralised the effect of numbers. The superior training and morale of the Ancient Spartan phalanxes held the 'Hot Gates', and the initial assault was cut to pieces. The next day saw an assault by the elite 10 000 immortals, but they were also forced back, in shame.

The course of the battle now swung against the Greek forces. The infamous traitor, Ephialtes, led a force of 40 000 Persians along a goat path, bringing them around the rear of the Greeks. The guarding force of 1000 Phocians fled, and the encirclement of the advance force was almost complete. Hearing of this, Leonidas dismissed the Greek allies, leaving only the 300 Spartans, 900 Messinian Helots and 700 Thespian volunteers. They made a last stand on a hill behind the pass, dying to a man and inspiring generals for centuries.

One year later, at Platea, 10 000 Ancient Spartan warriors, part of a force of about 45 000 hoplites, and an uncertain number of light troops, defeated a huge Persian force. This, along with the victory of the Athenian navy in the battle of Salamis, crushed Persian hopes forever. They never again invaded Greece and their focus shifted to using their wealth and prestige to influence Greek politics.

THE PELOPONNESIAN WARS

The end of the fifth century BC saw the uneasy alliance between Athens and Ancient Sparta, the two major powers in Greece, break down. At first, there was no outright declaration of war, but the two city states began playing the political game, wrangling and manipulating their allies. Athens exerted pressure on the city of Corinth and its colonies in Sicily, establishing its own outposts on that island. Corinth, alarmed by this, turned to Sparta for help, and threatened to leave the Peloponnesian League.

The Athenians also intrigued against another city, Megara, neighbour of Corinth, by restricting their rights to trade in Athens. Pressure built and war broke out, becoming a battle of attrition. Despite the superior initial strength of the Spartan armies, the strong defensive walls and powerful navy of Athens forced a stalemate.

By 421 BC both cities were feeling the strain upon their treasuries and armies. An uneasy truce was called, lasting until 415, when the Athenians suffered a major defeat whilst attempting to conquer Sicily. Despite this, Ancient Sparta failed to take advantage of this reversal and again offered peace. This was gratefully accepted and lasted until 404 BC. For a while, Sparta was the dominant force in the Eastern Mediterranean, but never fully exploited its position.

Persian gold equipped a new Spartan fleet, which crushed the Athenian navy in the Hellespont. Athens had no option but to surrender, and the Spartan terms were harsh. Athens had to tear down its walls and disband its fleet.

Please visit www.eccentric-englishman.com>www.eccentric-englishman.com for more history of Lakonia.

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Myths and Legends: The Tales that Shaped History

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Myths and legends are stories that have traditionally been passed down among members of a particular society via oral retellings. While there may be some truth to many of these tales, all myths and legends contain elements of the supernatural. They are stories meant to entertain, intrigue, and, in many cases, teach a lesson. Their importance in past cultures helped myths and legends to survive through generations of retellings. Consequently, historians are still able to use these tales as a lens into the past.

Although similar in their design and transmission, “myth” and “legend” are not interchangeable terms. Myths refer specifically to those stories of a religious nature. These tales generally relate to deities and seek to explain events of the natural world. Most formed the foundation of polytheistic religions and held a spiritual significance for the cultures that shared them. Through their morals, myths frequently help define behavioral norms for a society. In some cases, myths became the basis for religious rituals. This frequently entailed the symbolic reenactment of the events of a particular story. Although the most popularized myths are those of the ancient Greeks and Romans, there are innumerable other tales spanning across time and space.

In contrast to myths, legends involve ordinary humans who possess special qualities. These characters are not deities and are often based on actual historical figures whose existence can be proven. For the societies who told them, legends were considered factual history. There events, though characteristically unrealistic, were accepted as having actually taken place. Most involved heroic figures who completed some extraordinary deed. Each culture has ultimately had some sort of legendary figure to speak of. Some famous examples include King Arthur, Robin Hood, and Beowulf. However, there are countless other tales ranging from Icelandic sagas to American tall tales.

While other sources may have been lost to the elements of time, many myths and legends have survived for centuries. Unfortunately, most have likely been altered through numerous retellings. Since both myths and legends were part of an oral tradition, these stories were not written down until centuries after their construction. However, archaeological digs have uncovered artwork depicting ancient tales and written accounts of some stories can be traced to millennia ago. Most notably, Egyptian myths and legends were frequently recorded in hieroglyphics on tombs and monuments. Thus, historians are able to study these tales to clues about past civilizations

Some of the most interesting research involving myths and legends is the comparative study of stories from vastly different societies. Scholars in the field have found virtually identical myths and legends from cultures that existed thousands of miles apart. For example, stories defined as “flood myths” can be traced to ancient Babylon, early Hindu texts, Aztec stories, and the Hebrew bible. Due to historical limitations on transportation and travel, it is virtually impossible for these peoples to have interacted in any way. Thus, the question of how these stories developed remains an important topic of study. While some scholars believe it is mere coincidence, others say the similarities are too great to be a product of chance. Thus, they point to some greater forces at work in transmitting these tales. From alien intervention to lost civilizations with advanced technologies, the theories are wide-reaching and continue to be fiercely debated.

In a time before radio, television, and the internet, myths and legends were the key methods used by societies to transmit history, share experiences, and provide amusement. Although some stories may have changed over time with countless retellings, most have retained their original foundations. Thus, these tales are great ways to learn about the peoples of our past uncover a history that may otherwise be lost.

After the divorce the question arises of who will keep the house? Is it possible for you to buy the house? Can the payments be done by you to buy the house? You will have to seek answers to these questions before making the final decision. Also another important issue is to decide that who will keep the children. If you have decided that the children will not remain with you completely then keeping the house is out of the question because the house generally goes where the children are.You should not askfor the custody of the children just because they will get you the house. They are not leverage. The most important reason why the divorced couples decide to sell the house is that neither of them can afford to buy the house. if you have enough money you can purchase the other half by yourself and then later on sell that to your advantage. So if you are really interested in buying the house tell the other to get out of the way. Thus you will have a good chance of getting hold of the house as the other has aalready denied his claim over the house. The person who moves out of the house will be considered a very generous one as he has given the other the invaluable house.Also you should ask for the removal. This will give you the opportunity to have a temporary access. You should also remember that you can also ask for temporary staying in the house when the other partner has left the house. You should also have back up plan in case you lose the house.

There is no surety that you will end up getting the house. So you should never believe that you have got the house. In cases where you do your business from the home or within the premises then in most probability you should get the house. Your getting the house would be considered an inconvenience. Thus it will be clear that the house carries more value for you than your partner.

If you want to be doubly sure that you do not lose the possession of the house then the most important thing for you is to go for the consultation with a lawyer. The lawyer will advice you on the ways to keep the house and you should also be cautious not to suffer financially just to obtain the house. The things that should be kept in mind is that after getting the house who will pay for the repairs and fixing the problem. You should have the capacity to pay for all these.

Once you obtain the house's possession the first thing you should do is to change the lock. This will ensure that nobody enters the premises of your house without seeking your permission. This will also ensure your safety during the proceedings. The alarms in the windows can also be installed so that no body can enter through the windows. If you sense that your life is in jeopardy then avoid fighting over the house. At the same time being the parent be it father or mother you have the duty to protect your child and right to stay in the house.If it comes to disputes that over property, you have to examine whether it is worth it .

Once you obtain the house you will come to know that you will not be getting anything more. Then the question of waging the house comes against the other possessions. If you obtain the house the only other thing which you get is the money for child support and alimony. Any of the other things are denied if you have got the house.

AT the proceedings of divorce,make sure that you are not hiding anything. If you are hiding then its always good to have a back up plan so that you can come out clean from the court and get the possession of the house. Apart from the house the other thing you will want to think about are the children's custody.

Book Title/Title Page:

The Civil War Through The Camera.

Hundreds of vivid photographs
Actually Taken in Civil War Times
Sixteen Reproductions in Color of Famous War Paintings
A Complete Illustrated History of the CIVIL WAR

By Henry W. Elson, Professor of History, Ohio University

Copyright 1912
By Patriot Publishing Co., Springfield, Mass

About This Version

The antiquarian version reviewed here is a high quality hard bound book in a large format, with beautifully decorated and framed pages, excellent quality paper and printing of text, and images, mostly actual photographs, and includes sixteen full page color reproductions of Civil War paintings. Editing and production are flawless; a modern word processing program could not have done better.

This book consists of about 260 textual pages, and 317 photographs and images, and the sixteen color prints.



Comments:

Do not be misled by the title; this is not a picture book, though it is loaded with hundreds of fascinating photographs. Published almost 50 years after the end of the Civil War, the author created a comprehensive history of the war with compelling textual style and content, and hundreds of actual photographs.

The author, Henry Elson, had plenty of factual records to research, and digest, and he had the added advantage of living and writing in an era when the Civil War was still part of living history in the minds of many people, including war veterans from both sides.

This is a complete story of the Civil War, from beginning, to end, with all the horror, in between. And the whole story is made even more vivid by the accompanying photographs.

You don’t have to know any history of the Civil War in order to read this book; this book will teach the reader, as no modern book will, about the causes, and the conduct of the War. This book tells the story of the Civil War from not only a factual, no nonsense approach, but also from a uniquely human viewpoint, in dramatic prose.

Since this book was written over 86 years ago, most people will note that the textual style, prose, grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc, are somewhat different than our modern day expectations. (This is true of many antiquarian history books of the day). The effect is to provide a interesting, and delightful snapshot of a day and time, 1912, when prose was often unabashedly exciting, and dramatic. Even though the subject is about the horror and misery of war, you will find yourself smiling at the common use of words and phrases that we think of as being over dramatic hyperbole; it seems a little hokey, at times, for our modern world, but, in that day, it was quite common, and, regardless, it added another level of enjoyment.

For instance, the following quotations, are just two examples of many dramatic phrases common throughout the book: (While reading this, I can almost imagine hearing a drum roll as the war descends upon the land.)

On the field of Shiloh, for the first time, two great American armies were to engage in a mighty struggle that would measure up to the most important in the annals of Europe. And the pity of it was that the contestants were brethren of the same household, not hereditary and unrelenting enemies.

or, another example:

A murderous fire from the batteries on the cliff poured into their ranks. Gallantly the attacking columns withstood the deluge of leaden hail and drew near the creek. A few of the more aggressive reached the opposite bank but their repulse was severe.

The fact that this book was published in 1912 does not compromise the factual integrity. I have read modern versions, and this version, and there is no lack of factual historical content. In fact, I am sure that modern works rely heavily on works such as this book. Rather than give just the cold, hard facts of the civil war, this book gives more of an insiders view of the war; the emotion filled tales of sacrifice, and destruction, and death, and deprivation, and hatred, and cruelty, and pain, are balanced by tales of honor, chivalry, kindness, and humanity, and morality, and patriotism.

I am a History Buff; I am particularly interested in American era history; of the various antiquarian American history books that I’ve read, this one is a superb original work that I’m sure has been the basis for many subsequent Civil War histories.

This book makes for compelling reading. The historical content is without equal, and, while the format is similar to a textbook, it reads more like a novel, and it is hard to put down once you have started reading it. Even if you are a Civil War expert, and you have read many books about the war, I think you will find that you will gain a whole new perspective of the war from reading and studying this book. And if you are not an expert, you will be on your way to expert-hood when you finish this book.


This is a perfect candidate for conversion to a multimedia ebook. The subject, the layout, the text, the prose, the photographs, and all the additional Civil War resources available, are the ideal components of a multimedia enhanced ebook.

If this book were a movie, I would rate it PG, mostly because of the photographs, and because the prose may be a little difficult for the younger, grammar school age kids.

On a scale of 1 to 10, this book is a 10.

The End
EBJ030309002

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Supplemental Information:

Table of Contents:

Section 00 RECORDS WAR BETWEEN THE STATES
Section 01 BULL RUN THE VOLUNTEERS FACE FIRE
Section 02 FORT HENRY AND FORT DONELSON
Section 03 SHILOH THE FIRST GRAND BATTLE
Section 04 THE FIGHT FOR RICHMOND
Section 05 THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY
Section 06 THE SEVEN DAYS BATTLES
Section 07 CEDAR MOUNTAIN
Section 08 SECOND BATTLE OF BULL RUN
Section 09 ANTIETAM, OR SHARPESBURG
Section 10 STONES RIVER, OR MURFREESBORO
Section 11 FREDERICKSBURG DISASTER FOR A NEW UNION LEADER
Section 12 CHANCELLORSVILLE AND JACKSONS FLANKING MARCH
Section 13 VICKSBURG AND PORT HUDSON
Section 14 THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG THE HIGHWATER
MARK OF THE CIVIL WAR
Section 15 CHICKAMAUGA THE BLOODIEST CONFLICT IN THE WEST
Section 16 LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN
Section 17 THE BATTLE IN THE WILDERNESS
Section 18 SPOTSYLVANIA COURT HOUSE
Section 19 COLD HARBOR
Section 20 TO ATLANTA
Section 21 THE LAST CONFLICTS IN THE SHENANDOAH
Section 22 THE INVESTMENT OF PETERSBURG
Section 23 SHERMANS FINAL CAMPAIGN
Section 24 THE LAST INVASION OF TENNESSEE FRANKLIN NASHVILLE
Section 25 THE SIEGE AND FALL OF PETERSBURG
Section 26 APPOMATTOX

There are fewer objects that spark such passionate emotion as the various American flags through history.

A Brief Overview of American Flags Through History

When you consider that the history of the flag stretches just over 200 years, it's amazing to consider the impact this symbol of freedom has had on people throughout the world.  Whether it was the sight of the battered flag in the middle of battle, as described by Francis Scott Key, or the vision of the American flag carried through the European theater of war, bringing freedom and liberty to war-torn countries and imprisoned Jews - the flag is easily one of the most powerful symbols of liberty and freedom in the world today.

The History of the U.S. Flag

The very first flag was called the "Grand Union Flag," raised on January 1, 1776, by General Washington at his headquarters.  Another early flag, which many patriots know and recognize (seen on many biker jackets) is the rattlesnake and the motto "Don't Tread on Me ." 
 
On June 14, 1777, the Congress passed the "Flag Act" which stated that the new United States flag would consist of thirteen stripes, red and white, and thirteen stars for the 13 colonies of the Union. There were some variations in the layout, and no one is certain who created the first.  Many history books tell students about the legend of Betsy Ross, but the truth is, no one knows whether or not the story is true.  In fact many historians suspect that the design for the first flag was created by Francis Hopkinson of the Continental Congress.

Two stars and two stripes were added to the flag by 1792 in order to incorporate the two new states of Vermont and Kentucky.  The 15 stars and stripes flag was the one viewed above the battlefield by Francis Scott Key, who wrote the "Star-Spangled Banner ."

Finally, in 1818, Congress passed another Act, which set the stripes back to 13, and made the stars equivalent to the number of states.  The last star was finally added on July 4, 1960, when Hawaii became a U.S. state.

Don't Tread on Me Flag?

The "Don't Tread on Me Flag" is a little-known part of American history.  Also called the "Gadsden Flag," it is the ultimate symbol of American independence and freedom from dictatorship and oppressive rule. 

The symbol first appeared throughout the colonies in 1775, and it consisted of the American timber rattlesnake, coiled and ready to strike.  According to American historians, the symbol was painted on some drums carried by the first Marines who accompanied the first U.S. Navy on its first battles aboard the vessel named "The Alfred."  The symbol, a terrifying rattlesnake, poised to strike, with thirteen rattles and displaying the motto "Don't Tread on Me," has become a powerful and patriotic symbol for the armed forces, but especially for the Navy and the Marines. 
 
Other American Flags Through History
 
In addition to the stars and stripes, the revolutionary period of America's history was also represented by a number of local flags that colonists created during these difficult times. 

Fort Moultrie Flag : The colonists defending Fort Moutrie in South Carolina in 1776 created this first flag representing the fight for American liberty.  It was a blue flag with a crescent moon in the corner.  Printed on the moon was the word "Liberty."

Green Mountain Boys Flag : This flag was created by the militia in New Hampshire, on August 16, 1777, commanded by General John Stark.  It was flown at the Battle of Bennington, and it featured a green flag with 13 stars in the corner over a blue background.

Rhode Island Regiment Flag : The Rhode Island Regiment carried their own unique flag during the Revolutionary War.  The flag was white, with an anchor symbol in the center, and a blue corner with 13 stars.

Commodore Perry's Flag : In an amazing battle, during the War of 1812, Captain James Lawrence of the Chesapeake, during his last moments before dying on his ship, proudly ordered his men "Don't Give Up The Ship."  Not long after this sad event, Commodore Perry raised a flag with these words during the Battle of Lake Erie, which encouraged the men to win the battle. 

Bennington Flag : A flag that looks much like the stars and stripes, likely created in 1826 for the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, has the red and white stripes, but a corner featuring two stars at the top, and an arc of stars over the number "76".

Cavalry Guidon : This well-known flag was carried by the cavalry during the Civil War.  These were carried by Cavalry soldiers throughout the western U.S. for many years.  The flag had the stars and stripes, but the stars in the corner were shaped in a circle with one star at each corner.  The right edge of the flag also had a "V" notch in it.

A History of Independence

American flags through history represent the longing of the human heart to remain free from oppressive rule and dictatorship.  These symbols stand for the American commitment to freedom, liberty, and justice for all .

Learn more about the flags of all countries at FlagsAllCountries.com .

Many people who have followed the history of the Civil War can recognize that there is also a deep, underlying history represented by the rebel flags of a troubled America.

The History of Rebel Flags

There were many periods throughout the history of American when the country was troubled by the ideals that ran opposite to what most people in the United States wanted the country to stand for.  This division became most apparent during the Civil War. 

Bonnie Blue : The first Rebel Flag in America was the "Bonnie Blue", a single white star over a blue background.  This flag was used on September 11, 1810, when West Florida troops captured Baton Rouge shortly before winning its Independence.  The same flag was used by the Republic of Texas about 25 years later.  The "Bonnie Blue" represented, to many southern states, a symbolic gesture of removing their "star" from the Union.

Stars and Bars : March 4, 1861 brought the confederacy the "Stars and Bars."  The Montgomery capital raised this flag which initially had three red/white/red stripes, and several stars representing the seven Confederate States.  By December of the same year, after the addition of Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri - the total stars numbered thirteen.  Unfortunately, this flag looked so much like the Union flag that the Confederacy replaced it with the next flag in 1863.

The Battle Flag : The most well-known Confederate flag was, of course the Battle Flag.  This "Southern Cross" flag is the one printed on the top of the General Lee from the popular TV show "The Dukes of Hazzard."  This flag was used instead of the "Stars and Bars" in battle in order to distinguish it easier during battle.  Because this was the flag that saw "battle" so often, and it was the flag that Confederate troops fought and died for, it quickly came to represent the Southern "cause."  Today, this flag still represents the South.

Stainless Banner : The Confederacy continued to modify their official flag in an effort to remove confusion on the battlefield.  The new flag, adopted on May 1, 1863, was all-white with the symbol of the "Battle Flag" in the corner.  Unfortunately, this flag often appeared as a white "surrender" flag on the battlefield.

Last Confederate Flag : The Confederacy's last attempt to create an official flag was identical to the Stainless Banner, but with a red stripe at the right edge - so that, even hanging on calm days, the red stripe would remain visible.  This flag was adopted on March 4th, 1865.  The war ended thirty six days later with the surrender of the South on April 9th.

What the Rebel Flags Represent

During the Civil War, the rebel flags of the Confederacy represented revolt and turmoil to the North, but it represented independence and pride to the South.  The differences between North and South have faded over time, but undertones of those differences remain throughout all of society, especially throughout government and politics.  Even today, much of the country views the old confederate "Battle Flag" as representing a society that supported slavery and oppression.  On the other hand, another large segment of the population considers the Battle Flag as a representation of revolution against the oppressive force of a government that tries to force mandates upon society.  In the end, rebel flags are sure to live on as a very visible symbol of a very troubled period in our nation's history.

Learn more about the flags of all countries at FlagsAllCountries.com .

The city of Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh has seen many Communal ups and downs right from the Razakar movement onwards. There have been periods where it has been secular later communal and then secular again. Mostly modern Hyderabad has been relatively peaceful but just as with the rest of India fallen prey to communally divisive politics. The history of Hyderabad began with the Qutub Shahi dynasty when Golconda was established and later the capital was shifted to Hyderabad with the building of monuments like the Charminar. In the history of the later princely state the importance of the Telangana region holds the key to the way the city was formed. The most prosperous region at one point of time is now in the midst of an economic (barring Hyderabad and the Rangareddy districts) and social struggle for an autonomous state.

The Qutub Shahi rulers were quite accepting of the Telugu culture of the region and embraced the language and culture by learning it and patronizing the arts and encouraging telugu literature. The rulers would converse, read and write in Telugu. The classical dance form Kuchipudi was also born during this time. The Qutub Shahi’s were benevolent rulers who laid emphasis on inclusive progress and assimilated themselves into the culture. The Muslim kings married into the local people of which the most famous example is that of Bhagmati, which gave rise to the name Bhagyanagar to her subsequent conversion to Hyder Mahal from which the name Hyderabad came to be. The dynasty was also very wealthy as a result of the diamond mining (this was where the Kohinoor was excavated) and this prosperity attracted unwarranted attention from the Mughal Empire. The region had an overwhelming majority of Hindus (around 96%) being ruled by Muslim kings which did not present as a problem for nearly 200 years of their rule.

After Aurangazeb’s repeated attacks the dynasty declined and the Mughal inquisition gave rise to the Asaf Jahi dynasty or as they are more popularly known the Nizams of Hyderabad. Under their rule the region of Telangana was the epicentre of the kingdom and Hyderabad was the capital. The Nizam rule saw the rising of the Princely State of Hyderabad and it was some of the most prosperous time for the kingdom. The Hindu population of the state was around 93% but there was not a lot of animosity among the people and the Nizam had signed a treaty with the British Establishment after supporting their annexation of Mysore. So neighbouring Secunderabad and other regions were administered by the British Imperialist forces and the presence of the British Army was a constant. Though the majority population was Hindu it was no secret that the Nizams favoured the Muslims.

Urdu was imposed on the people and Universities (Osmania University) and Schools (Aaliya) established were to enforce Urdu among the Hindus. The administration was also completely dominated by Muslims. This also did not incite any unrest among the people as one of the pillars of the Nizams Sarkar was the support from the Deshmukhs and Jagirdars who were the earlier captured kings from other provinces of India with royal status. All was well till the Nizam demanded dominion status and decided not to join India or Pakistan beginning in 1946. The Hindus (Andhra Mahasaba), Communists and pro-Indian union Muslims started the join India movement, this had the Nizam worried and thus began the Razakar movement with the Majlis-e-Ittehadhul Musalmeen (MIM, separatist dominion group) which included some dalits. This laid the ground for nearly two years of a virtual siege on the Hindus of the state. This led to the police action and the action of the Indian Government to annexe the state and they succeeded on the 18th of September 1948 with the Nizam becoming the ‘Raj Pramukh’

For a city born out of such communal strife and immense religious tension for the years after the struggle the region remained relatively non-communal. There were problems with the violent farmer struggles which grew stronger to the now very evident Naxal problem the contribution of the communists to a peace amongst religions were crucial but laying a virtual siege to official machinery was not (things were non communal even during the Telangana Agitation). Even the rise of Salahuddin Owaisi of the MIM (distanced from the separatist cause) was not the cause of much communal strife. The Babri Masjid demolition changed that and saw the MIM fighting for the rights of Muslims in the city (which made the Owaisis very powerful). This is where the communal harmony in Hyderabad went south. The BJP was making its presence felt like it did in the national arena from 1984 onwards that gave the MIM a slight scare when Badam Bal Reddy almost won (it is alleged that there was massive rigging done to make the MIM win, as a BJP victory would mean a virtual war in the Old City area as it is now known).

The seeds of hatred though had already been laid; Hyderabad after formation of the Andhra Pradesh state saw the worst Hindu-Muslim riots and everything after that became a communal issue. Charminar was basically turned into a MIM bastion and many Hindu traders decided to move out fearing their life. Friday prayer at the Mecca Masjid became the ideal place to start a riot after prayers and anything would set off a stone pelting spree. Then again during the Telugu Desam Party (that was until the alignment with the BJP) and Congress rule in the state there was a lull but very sensitive. During this time many Hindu customs which were earlier welcomed met with opposition and many Muslim practices were deliberately opposed. Both sides wanted to gain political mileage from the communal conflict. Every festival and celebration had to be policed heavily.

Till 1998 Hyderabad had not fully taken off to the current IT city metro status but the division of the Old and New City areas had begun just prior the 90’s. The Babri demolition gave rise to fundamental elements to take advantage of the situation which led to hyper extension of mosques and anti-Hindu tirades at sermons (the most often said thing was to abstain from buying anything from Hindus during Ramzan, now extended to not buy anything from Hindus at any given time). The reactionary response to that was Ganesh Visarjan yatras deliberately causing problems when passing through the Old City or the local Bonalu festival being heavily guarded as the rituals lead to many uncomfortable situations. The MIM was a party to many of these problems but vote-bank politics meant ignorance at best. Islamic fundamentalist elements had permeated locally with an influx of migrants from various parts of the country (plus international influences and migration back and forth).

Sleeper cells of Islamic fundamentalist groups, rise of the RSS now ruled the previously communist (including Maoist Naxal) Telangana. As a result these unchecked happenings eventually led to the Hyderabad Bombings (in Mecca Masjid, Lumbini Park and Gokul Chaat) and the attack of MIM legislators on Taslima Nasreen. The MIM though had shown signs of this when they violently stamped out (there was a shootout where most members were killed, but as always not many clues were found) the opposition from the Majlis-Bachao-Tehreek (MBT) after the death of their leader Amanullah Khan, who had led a successful opposition movement to the MIM. The MIM recently demanded a Muslim state with Warangal as its capital for Telangana, the Communist Party of India had gained significant ground recently as people of the Old City saw through the MIM but the nuclear deal and a passionate speech by Asaduddin Owaisi in support virtually eliminated that near change in thought process. Again Hyderabad is on high alert and the Hindu-Muslim he said-she said will go on but the rising forces of terror will go mostly unchecked in the process. There are enough problems with the Naxal groups now the state has to tackle a combination of problems.

Manchester occupies a hallowed place in the history of England because of its key role in the Industrial Revolution. Today, it is also known as a centre of the arts, media, commerce and higher education. There are some who consider Manchester to be England’s second city, but Birmingham can also lay claim to that distinction.

At present, Manchester is being considered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for possible inclusion as a World Heritage Site. UNESCO has taken note of Manchester’s network of canals and mills, important contributors to the city’s development during the 19th century Industrial Revolution.

The history of Manchester can be traced back to Roman times when it was first settled. General Gnaeus Julius Agricola established a fort in old Manchester to serve as a trading and staging post between York and Chester. During the Dark Ages, troops abandoned the fort and the entire area went undeveloped for some time as settlement shifted to other areas, particularly near the Irwell and Irk rivers. Later on, manorial lord Thomas De La Warre, who was also a priest, gave the site to the church and in 1422, the fortified manor house was turned into the College of Priests, which is now Chetham’s School of Music. The Collegiate Church was constructed later on. It is actually today’s Manchester Cathedral.

In 1301, the city turned into a market town upon receiving its Charter. This was followed by a strong migration of Flemish settlers who further propelled the growth of Manchester through their thriving new cotton and textile industry. Manchester soon became the premiere industrial centre of Lancashire.

By the 19th century, Manchester was known as ‘Cottonopolis’ in honour of its primary produce and in recognition of its stature as the centre of the region’s prosperous cotton industry. Manchester made great strides in the area of infrastructure with the construction of the city’s world renowned canal system and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Shortly thereafter, Manchester evolved into the leading industrial centre in the world and its first industrial society.

The evolution of Manchester as an industrial society was fast and revolutionary as new industrial processes, new forms of labour organization and new ways of thinking originated from the city and captured the world’s attention. The ‘Manchester School’, which promoted free trade and laissez-faire, was emulated in other places. Entrepreneurs and industrialists from all over Europe trekked to Manchester to study the way they did things. "What Manchester does today, the rest of the world does tomorrow," became a popular saying. It was also during this time that Manchester experienced a great surge in population with the immigration of Lancastarians, Jews and the Irish.

In the late 19th century, turmoil struck Manchester as the working and non-titled classes rebelled against the ruling class, culminating with the events known as ‘Peterloo’ on St. Peter’s Field on August 16, 1819. Manchester has since played a prominent role in the labour movement. It hosted the first Trade Union Congress in June 1868 and is recognized as the cradle of the Labour party and the Suffragette Movement.

The last quarter of the 19th century marked Manchester’s golden age. During this period, construction was completed on many of the city’s great architectural landmarks, including its town hall and the Manchester Ship Canal, which allowed foreign ships to sail straight to the Port of Manchester Docks. When the docks of the Port of Manchester closed in the seventies, there was massive unemployment in the area.

The establishment of Trafford Park in Stretford, the world’s first industrial estate, further stamped the city’s stature as an industrial powerhouse. However, its place in the world of industry took a hit with the depression that followed the war and with the development of new structures and processes that supplanted the old industries such as textile manufacturing, once the city’s bread and butter industry.

By World War II, Manchester had shifted to heavy industrial construction. It hosted the offices and production plant of Avro, the manufacturer of aircraft for the RAF, most notable of which was the popular Avro Lancaster bomber. The war saw many Luftwaffe attacks on Manchester, including the infamous 1941 Christmas Blitz, which resulted in massive damage throughout the city, including the historic Cathedral.

Manchester formally split from Lancashire county in 1974 with the creation of the Borough of Manchester.

In recent history, Manchester made worldwide news when an IRA bomb exploded in the city centre on June 15, 1996. It marked the largest bomb to ever be detonated in British soil, resulting in more than 200 injuries and, thankfully, no deaths. Most of the damage involved nearby buildings and other structures.

Subsequent reconstruction efforts have changed the city landscape significantly as several historic sections of the city were either demolished or modernized with glass and steel. The fully-renovated Manchester Arndale opened in September 2006 and captured the title of Europe’s biggest city centre shopping mall.

Article by Susan Ashby of Manchester Singles. To read more articles like this or for dating in Manchester visit http://www.manchester-singles.co.uk

Many people are into wholesaling houses and flipping houses in the real estate business. However, it is quite contrasting that there are still many people who do not understand the nature of both and how they are different from each other.

What is Wholesaling Houses?

When you try to wholesale houses, what you do is you find a motivated seller and buy the house he is selling at a much lower price than its real value. Motivated sellers are people who intend to sell their house fast and would not spend too much time lobbying for a higher price than the value of the house. These people include those who just had a divorce, experienced death or are people who are just anxious to move to another place.

After having bought a house, you directly find a house buyer who would either flip the house or live in the house. Either way, sell the house for the price that you paid to buy it plus an increase of $10,000 or more depending on how you play it. Just remember that the longer the house stays in your possession the worse it is for you because the more expenses would pile up and the closer you go to a loss.

What is Flipping Houses?

Flipping houses, on the other hand, is quite similar with wholesaling houses but involves a lot of differences. You still buy a house that you intend to sell, but instead of selling it directly, you flip it, thus the term flipping houses. When you say you flip a house or a certain kind of property for that matter, you rehab the house that you bought before you try to open it to the market. In this case, you will be needing some money for the repairs and furnishings that you intend to add. Make sure that when you spend money for the house for rehabilitation, it would add a considerable amount to the price or that it would make the house more saleable.

The same with wholesaling house, house flipping also demands that the whole process of flipping (from the buying to the house rehabbing to the selling of the house) should be done in a controlled duration of time. This means that before the expenses for the house pile up, you should have already sold it.

Wholesaling appeals to people who are in a tight budget and who can not stand the whole process of rehabbing. So long as you don't run out of prospect house buyers, you will be assured that you will not be in the losing team. Flipping houses, in another sense, is good for people who intend to really make a lot of money out of the house that they bought using the make-over that they do to the house. Just make sure that when you do any of these two, you have the necessary strategies and techniques to help you sell the house in a much higher price because at the end of the day, it is what matters most in wholesaling house and flipping houses.

We all love looking at Hawaiian shirts. Looking back at the history of Hawaiian shirts, also known as the “Aloha Shirt”, we see that it can be traced to the 19th century and to the early western missionaries. Those missionaries thought that covering the recent Christianized natives would be more appropriate than allowing them to go topless. In the 1930’s Hawaiian shirts started to be produced commercially and continue to this day. Some researchers have discovered stories about the pioneer of the Aloha shirt, a Waikiki, Honolulu, Chinese merchant named Mr. Ellery Chun. Mr. Chun was the owner of the well-known King Smith Clothiers and dry goods store. He was born in Honolulu in 1909 and he died at the age of 91 on June 16, 2000.

With the help of her sister, Ethel Chun Lum, they started to shape the history of the Hawaiian shirt. Ethel Chun Lum made the first floral, brightly colored, short sleeved shirt which is made up of kimono fabric. On July 15, 1963, Mr. Chun registered his own business with “Aloha” as the trade name and it was then that he began generating and advertising Hawaiian printed shirts. He placed a sign on his window shop that read, “Aloha Shirt”, which ignited the success of the sales of his business.

The shirts were enormously popular and sold mainly to the local residents, surfers, tourists and boys who loved the beach. The “Aloha Shirt” was first displayed in an advertisement in the Honolulu Adviser on June 28, 1935 with the words “Aloha Shirt” as the title. Hawaiian shirts were improved in the mid 1920’s with Rayon. This made the Hawaiian Print Aloha shirt the ultimate souvenir for tourists.

Hawaiian shirts were well-known in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Even celebrities wore the famous “Aloha Shirt”. In fact, Elvis Presley, who was known as the undisputed king of rock, had a collection of Hawaiian Shirts that he used in his performances. He was often spotted and photographed wearing Hawaiian shirts.

Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States, wore Aloha Shirts. As a matter of fact, he was featured in a 1951 issue of Life Magazine wearing a Hawaiian shirt. Frank Sinatra and Montgomery Cliff also wore Hawaiian shirts during the motion picture “From here to Eternity”.

There are still a lot of celebrities and public figures who continue to wear and endorse Hawaiian shirts. A list of famous people is enough to prove that Hawaiian shirts are loved by many. The Hawaiian shirt served as the symbol of the island paradise. It represents the warm and pleasant greeting to people who visit the Hawaiian Islands. However, we would not have worn the Hawaiian shirts if they were not created at all. Let us pay tribute to the people who shaped the history of the Hawaiian shirt.

India with its vast population and ancient history understandably has had changing attitudes towards sex.

The history of sex in India has been affected by many things, the caste system, colonization, and latterly globalisation. There has been a turnaround in attitudes towards sex recently and a return to attitudes that were common in ancient times.

Although the Kama Sutra is popularly known today in Western countries as a guide to sex, Indian attitudes towards sex has been almost prudish until recently. An influx of Western culture has slowly seen a sexual revolution unfolding in India .

The Kama Sutra

The Kama Sutra is one of the surviving texts about the sixty four arts of love making. It was not widely distributed by everyone in India . The history of sex in India was always guided by the caste system, as it is today. Sex between castes was often forbidden.The higher castes and those belonging to the nobility practised the sixty four arts. There were many versions of the arts, some of which have been lost forever. These guides were highly influential and spread as far as Japan .

The Kama Sutra comes from a time when India had relatively liberal ideas towards sex. Sex was considered a duty to be carried out by married couples, and husband and wife were to pleasure each other equally. These liberal attitudes towards sex are not consistent throughout the history of sex in India .

Colonization

Colonization had a very big impact on the history of sex in India . British colonists brought with them a Victorian attitude towards sex and propriety. The establishment of British rule meant that British ideas towards sex slowly spread throughout India . This severely curbed sexual freedom and many respected Indians adopted this form of thinking towards sex.

Globalization

While the West experienced the beginnings of a sexual revolution in the 1960's and 70's, India remained in its colonial past in terms of attitudes towards sex. It has only started to open up to ideas about sex and sexual freedom in recent years as exposure towards Western standards on sexual freedom has increased.

Depictions of sex in movies and television has been rare, even kissing scenes are considered by many Indians. This however is changing, with sex slowly creeping into the cinema. The liberalization of sexual attitudes in modern India has marked a new chapter in the history of sex in India . The AIDS epidemic has taken hold of India .

The large amount of AIDS cases is largely to do with the population of India . However the problem of poor sex education is also part of the problem. Many people in rural areas do not know they are infected and continue to infect others.

Original article : History Of Sex In India And Its Changing Role

The Heritage Foundation is a very influential public policy research institute that is located in Washington, DC. It is a conservative “think tank” that has had a significant impact on both domestic and foreign United States government policies.

History of the Heritage Foundation

The Heritage Foundation was founded in 1973. The initial funding for the formation of the Heritage Foundation came from Joseph Coors, who is the politically conservative owner of Coors Brewing Company. Paul Weyrich, who is a conservative activist, was the first head of the Heritage Foundation. The president of the Heritage Foundation since 1974 has been Edwin Feulner, Jr., who was the formerly the staff director of the House Republican Study Committee.

Initiatives of the Heritage Foundation

The Heritage Foundation has been long known for its influential and wide-ranging work. Its book Mandate for Leadership was published in 1981. This 1,000 page book forever changed the character of public policy advice giving. It provided recommendations on budget, policy, and administrative action for the incoming administration of President Ronald Regan. These recommendations included action for every Cabinet department, as well as for many other agencies staffed with political appointees.

The Heritage Foundation was also the primary creator and advocate of the Reagan Doctrine in the 1980’s and the early 1990’s. Within the Reagan Doctrine, the United States government provided support, both overt and covert, to anti-communist resistance movements in countries such as Angola, Nicaragua, Cambodia, and Afghanistan. The Heritage Foundation also supported global anti-communism throughout the Cold War. In fact, the Heritage Foundation was active at the time in providing military and political guidance to rebel forces in Angola, Nicaragua, and Cambodia, as well as to dissidents in Soviet republics and Eastern bloc nations.

The Heritage Foundation also played a key role in the advancement of President Reagan’s belief that the Soviet Union was an “evil empire.” It further supported the belief that the former Soviet Union needed to be defeated, not merely contained. The Heritage Foundation was instrumental in helping to build support for Reagan’s plans to build the Strategic Defense Initiative, which was an orbital ballistic missile shield.

The Heritage Foundation is also an advocate of supply side economics, which is an economic policy that maintains reductions in the marginal rate of taxation can lead to economic growth. To assist in spreading this belief, the Heritage Foundation partners with the Wall Street Journal to publish an annual international report called Index of Economic Freedom. This report measures the freedom of the country in relation to its property rights and its freedom from regulation by the government. The Heritage Foundation takes factors such as barriers to international trade, corruption in government, corporate tax rates, income tax, rule of law, government expenditures, the ability to enforce contracts, banking restrictions, regulatory burdens, black market activities, and labor regulations to calculate the index score for this report. Any deficiencies in any of these areas lead to a lower score.

Financing the Heritage Foundation

The Heritage Foundation has a great deal of power on Capitol Hill, but insists that it doesn’t lobby to get its way. This allows the Heritage Foundation to retain a tax exempt status as a charity. Due to its status as a charitable organization, the Heritage Foundation was able to collect $29.7 million in 2004. The majority of these funds are from individual donors and conservative foundations.